Contact Angle Measurement: Der ultimative Leitfaden (2025)

This is a complete guide to Contact Angle Measurement in (2025). In this all-new guide you’ll learn all about:

  • Grundlegende Konzepte & Prinzipien
  • Messtechnik
  • The significance of Contact Angle measurements across various industries
  • Lots More

So if you’re looking to get an in-depth understanding of Contact Angle measurement, you should get a lot of value from our guide. Let’s dive right in.

Contact Angle

Einleitung

In materials science and surface physics, scientists rely heavily on understanding material behavior through the contact angle. It illuminates how a liquid droplet interacts with a solid surface, providing insights into wettability and adhesion. Contact angle measurement plays a critical role in optimizing industrial coatings and designing life-saving medical devices, spanning a surprisingly wide range of industries. This article explores this crucial measurement and its multifaceted applications.

Defining contact angle measurement

Contact angle measurement precisely assesses the angle formed by a liquid droplet on a solid surface. It determines the angle at which the tangent to the droplet’s surface forms where the liquid, solid, and gas phases meet, unraveling complex interactions between liquids and solids. By understanding contact angles, scientists and engineers gain valuable information about surface properties and behaviors that influence various industrial and scientific processes.

Bedeutung und Anwendungen in der Industrie

Contact angle measurement’s significance reaches beyond scientific roots. In materials science, it optimizes coatings, paints, and adhesives, heightening durability and performance.
performance

By precisely measuring contact angles, engineers can tailor surface properties to achieve desired functionalities, such as water repellency or adhesion enhancement. In the life sciences, it influences biocompatible surface design for medical devices and implants, ensuring compatibility with biological systems. Moreover, it guides innovations in electronics, energy, and environmental sciences, from self-cleaning surfaces to fuel cell technologies and oil spill remediation strategies.

Grundlegende Konzepte und Prinzipien

What is a contact angle?
A contact angle is a fundamental measurement that quantifies the angle at which a liquid droplet makes contact with a solid surface. We determine it by the tangent that forms at the three-phase boundary where the liquid, solid, and gas phases meet. This seemingly straightforward angle, often denoted as θ, plays a pivotal role in understanding interfacial interactions.
Why contact angle is so important
The contact angle reveals key material properties, indicating wettability and guiding optimization of coatings, adhesives, and materials. By understanding how liquids interact with surfaces, scientists and engineers can develop better surface treatments, coatings, and materials for a wide range of applications. It also aids in designing effective drug delivery systems and biocompatible surfaces in the medical sector, ensuring improved performance and patient safety.
What is wetting in contact angle measurement?

Wetting describes how a liquid interacts with a solid surface, categorized as complete wetting (θ = 0°), partial wetting (0° < θ < 90°), or non-wetting (θ = 90°).

Asd23 300x150

Wetting phenomena provide insights into material properties and surface behavior. Complete wetting creates uniform coatings, while partial wetting enables controlled-release drug delivery systems. Non-wetting surfaces are fundamental for self-cleaning materials and anti-fog coatings, allowing engineers to tailor materials for specific purposes. Understanding wetting phenomena is a central insight in application and process development.

What is surface tension as opposed to interfacial tension?

Surface tension is a fundamental property of a liquid that arises from the cohesive forces between its molecules. It is responsible for the spherical shape of water droplets and the ability of insects to "walk on water." Interfacial tension, on the other hand, is the force of attraction between the molecules at the interface of two immiscible fluids, such as oil and water.

Role of surface tension in contact angle measurement

Surface and interfacial tensions are intimately related to contact angle measurement as they influence the wetting behavior of a liquid on a solid surface. High surface tension results in smaller contact angles, as the liquid prefers to spread over the surface—while low surface tension leads to larger contact angles, causing the liquid to bead up. Understanding these tensions helps in predicting and controlling the wetting behavior of liquids on various surfaces.

What are the types of Contact Angles?

Contact angles come in various forms, each offering unique insights into surface interactions and essential for optimizing material properties.

Advancing and receding contact angles
Advancing and receding contact angles provide an understanding of the dynamic nature of contact angles when a liquid droplet interacts with a solid surface.

Advancing Contact Angle

This is the angle formed as a liquid droplet spreads on the solid surface. It’s key for understanding how a liquid initially wets a substrate. A smaller advancing contact angle indicates better wetting, as the liquid readily spreads across the surface.

Liquid Measurement

Receding Contact Angle

In contrast, the receding contact angle represents the angle formed as the liquid droplet begins to retract or pull away from the solid surface. It’s a central parameter for applications involving droplet detachment or retraction, such as self-cleaning surfaces.

Liquid Measurement

Static and Dynamic Contact Angles

Static and dynamic contact angles distinguish between measurements taken under different conditions, offering a comprehensive view of wetting behavior.

Static Contact Angle

This is the contact angle observed when a liquid droplet comes to rest on a solid surface. It provides insight into the equilibrium state of wetting, allowing for comparisons between different surfaces or materials.

Dynamischer Kontaktwinkel

Dynamic contact angles are measured when a liquid droplet is in motion, such as when it’s advancing or receding on a surface. They are valuable for understanding how a liquid interacts with a surface over time and provide data on contact angle hysteresis—how dependent a liquid’s behavior is on its recent history.

Learn how Static and Dynamic Contact Angle measurement can be done using our Dropometer.

Equilibrium Contact Angle

The equilibrium contact angle represents the angle at which a liquid droplet rests on a solid surface after all dynamic changes cease. It is a key indicator of a surface’s wettability and the balance between adhesive and cohesive forces.

A smaller equilibrium contact angle indicates that the liquid wets the surface effectively and forms a thin, uniform film. A larger equilibrium contact angle, however, suggests non-wetting behavior, where the liquid beads up and does not spread.

Understanding the different types of contact angles and their relevance is fundamental to interpreting and utilizing contact angle data effectively. Whether in the context of materials research, biomaterial development, or advanced manufacturing, the ability to manipulate and control these angles is a vital tool in tailoring surface properties to meet specific needs

What factors affect the Contact Angle?

Surface roughness, surface chemistry, temperature, and pressure can all alter contact angles. Additionally, liquid properties, including viscosity, density, and surface tension, play a significant role.

Surface Roughness

Rough solid surfaces offer more points of contact for a liquid droplet, thereby increasing wetting. As a result, rough surfaces tend to display smaller contact angles. Conversely, smooth surfaces have fewer contact points, resulting in larger contact angles. Surface roughness plays a significant role in fields such as coatings and adhesives, where improving adhesion and wettability relies on optimizing surface texture.

Sliding Angle Measurement - The Definitive Guide
Surface Chemistry

The chemical composition of a solid surface significantly influences contact angles. Surface energy, which depends on the type of atoms or functional groups present, dictates how a liquid droplet interacts with the surface. High surface energy promotes wetting, resulting in smaller contact angles, whereas low surface energy promotes non-wetting behavior, leading to larger contact angles. Modifying surface chemistry through treatments or coatings provides a powerful means to tailor wetting characteristics in industrial applications.

Chemistry Diagram

Temperature & Pressure

At higher temperatures, many liquids experience reduced viscosity, enabling them to wet surfaces more effectively and decreasing contact angles. Conversely, lower temperatures can increase liquid viscosity, resulting in larger contact angles.

Pressure also influences these effects, with pressure variations impacting the gas-liquid interface and affecting measurements. These factors are particularly significant in industries like petrochemicals and food science, where precise temperature and pressure control are crucial.

Pressure

Liquid Properties

The properties of the liquid, such as viscosity, density, and surface tension, directly impact contact angles. Viscous liquids tend to form larger contact angles since they spread less readily on a surface. Conversely, low-viscosity liquids create smaller contact angles. Liquid density can also influence wetting, with less dense liquids generally resulting in smaller contact angles. Liquid surface tension, a fundamental property, is critical as well. Liquids with high surface tension tend to show smaller contact angles, while those with lower surface tension tend to exhibit larger contact angles.

Differences in Viscosity

Understanding and manipulating these factors holds fundamental importance for processes and applications where surface interactions play a central role.

Messtechnik

Needless to say, accurate measurement of contact angles is essential. Various techniques are employed for this purpose, each with its unique advantages and disadvantages. Some of the most common methods include:

Sessile Drop Method

The sessile drop method involves placing a small droplet of a liquid on the surface of interest and measuring the shape of the droplet, particularly its contact angle with the solid, using specialized equipment. We calculate the contact angle by analyzing the drop's size, shape, and equilibrium position. Widely used for its simplicity and accuracy, the sessile drop method is a non-destructive technique suitable for a wide range of materials and applications. However, it relies on nearly perfect spherical droplets, and surface homogeneity is crucial for precise measurements. Despite these limitations, it remains one of the most reliable and efficient methods.

In the sessile drop method, researchers place a small droplet of liquid on a solid surface and determine its angle by analyzing its shape using a contact angle goniometer or other specialized equipment. Maintaining a clean and homogeneous surface and ensuring the droplet remains spherical are essential. This method's simplicity and precision make it a preferred choice.

Drop Method 300x176

Wilhelmy-Platten-Methode

The Wilhelmy plate method involves immersing a thin, flat plate (usually made of glass or metal) into the liquid and measuring the force needed to detach the plate from the liquid, which we then use to calculate the contact angle.

This method is simple and particularly useful for studying contact angles in the context of dynamic wetting. However, it may not offer the same level of precision as the sessile drop method, and ensuring that the plate remains perfectly clean and contamination-free between measurements can be challenging.

Schematic representation of Wilhelmy plate method

Captive Bubble Method

The captive bubble method involves immersing a solid substrate into a liquid and introducing a gas bubble into the system. We calculate the contact angle by measuring the pressure difference across the bubble's interface.

This method is suitable for studying contact angles in confined spaces and for specialized applications. However, it is less commonly used due to the complexity of the apparatus and the requirement for precise pressure measurements.

Schematic representation of Wilhelmy plate method

Vergleich der Techniken

While each method has its pros and cons, the sessile drop method stands out as the most precise and efficient technique for contact angle measurement. Its simplicity and non-destructive nature make it versatile and applicable to various surfaces and liquids, making it highly suitable for both static and dynamic measurements.

Applications of Contact Angle Measurement

Contact Angle Measurements are utilized across various industries. Here are some examples of their applications in each field:

I. Automotive

Optimizing Automotive Paint

We applied four different paints (A, B, C, and D) to curved metal surfaces like car hoods and doors to identify the most water-repellent option. We used contact angle as the key measure, with a larger angle indicating better water repellency. Paint A completely absorbed water droplets, while Paint B formed a 36-degree contact angle. Paints C and D achieved even better results, with contact angles of 42 and 58 degrees, respectively. These measurements represent the average of 8 and 10 readings for paints A and B, and C and D, respectively. Based on these results, Paint D emerges as the most suitable candidate for water resistance, clearly demonstrated by its superior contact angle. Conversely, Paint A proves entirely unsuitable, allowing water to spread and potentially be absorbed due to its minimal contact angle.
Optimizing Automotive Paint

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Automotive industry

II. Luft- und Raumfahrt

Cell Culture in Space: Navigating the Unique Challenges of Microgravity

Space provides a radically different setting than Earth, affecting everything it touches, including cell culture systems. The unique thermodynamics and mechanics of space make standard ground-based cell culture systems unpredictable. Microgravity and the absence of buoyancy-driven convection cause deviations in behavior. To address these changes, modern research focuses on understanding the dynamics of contact angles and surface properties of cell culture media. By providing researchers with the right tools, such as our tensiometer, we help them optimize space-bound cell culture systems and ensure their findings are accurate and actionable.
Cell Culture in Space: Navigating the Unique Challenges of Microgravity

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächenforschung für die Luft- und Raumfahrtindustrie.

III. Biotechnologie

Nano Magic: Gezielte Behandlung

Es ist leicht, Nanopartikel aufgrund ihrer geringen Größe als unbedeutend abzutun, aber der Schein kann täuschen. Trotz ihrer winzigen Größe revolutionieren sie mit ihrer bemerkenswerten Vielseitigkeit die Biotech-Industrie. Ihr großes Verhältnis von Oberfläche zu Volumen, gepaart mit einer einstellbaren Oberflächenchemie, macht sie ideal für Arzneimittelverabreichungssysteme. Nehmen Sie zum Beispiel die Glaukombehandlung. Sowohl das Medikament selbst als auch seine Verabreichungsmethode spielen eine entscheidende Rolle für seine Wirksamkeit. Durch die Analyse von Kontaktwinkeln können Forscher genau steuern, wie mit Medikamenten beladene Nanopartikel mit der Augenoberfläche interagieren. Dies führt zu optimierten Formulierungen, die nicht nur die Patientenergebnisse verbessern, sondern auch eine nachhaltige und effiziente Wirkstoffabgabe gewährleisten.
Nano Magic: Targeting Treatment

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächenforschung für die Biotech-Industrie.

IV. Chemikalien

Nanoparticle Dispersibility

In the dynamic and ever-evolving chemical industry, achieving a uniform dispersion of nanoparticles is a challenging task that often determines the effectiveness of a formulation. Imagine a scenario where nanoparticles, commonly used to enhance the performance or appearance of a product, tend to aggregate, leading to non-uniform distributions within the formulation. This aggregation not only reduces the product’s efficacy but also poses challenges in the manufacturing process.

By precisely manipulating surface properties such as wettability and surface energy, nanoparticles can achieve a homogeneous dispersion throughout the formulation. This uniform dispersion is crucial for ensuring consistent product quality and performance. The benefits of this precise control go beyond achieving uniformity. Improved nanoparticle dispersibility enhances product stability, shelf life, and overall effectiveness, providing a significant competitive advantage in the market.

Nanoparticle Dispersibility

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächentechnik für die chemische Industrie.

V. Konsumgüter

Fogging Issues on Sports Goggles

An eyewear company faced a fogging problem with their sports goggles, hindering athletes’ visibility during activities. To combat this, they actively developed hydrophobic coatings using contact angle measurements. Their aim was to achieve an optimal angle that minimized water adhesion, the key factor in fog formation. By minimizing adhesion, they successfully created anti-fog eyewear, significantly improving user experience across various sports.
Fogging Issues on Sports Goggles

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächentechnik für die Konsumgüterindustrie.

VI. Konstruktion

Deterioration of Solar Panels on a Rooftop

Herausforderung : Dust and pollution accumulated on the solar panels of a commercial building, reducing their energy generation efficiency. Lösung : Applying a hydrophobic and oleophobic coating to the solar panels increased the contact angle, causing rainwater to bead up and carry away dust and pollutants. This self-cleaning effect improved energy generation efficiency and reduced maintenance costs.
Deterioration of Solar Panels on a Rooftop

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Construction industry

VII. Kosmetika

Amplifying Sunscreen’s Shield

Sunscreen does more than just block the sun—it forms a protective barrier between our delicate skin and relentless ultraviolet rays. Understanding the underlying science behind this solution has been crucial. When researchers examined contact angles between sunscreen droplets and skin, they discovered that optimizing them would provide a more uniform, reliable, resilient, and longer-lasting protective layer. This data also suggested the possibility of a sunscreen that felt less like a mask and more like a second skin—a sunscreen you could wear without feeling weighed down.
Amplifying Sunscreen’s Shield

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Cosmetics industry.

VIII. Elektrik & Elektronik

Solarzelle: Benetzbarkeit

Scenario: In the case of a solar cell manufacturer, measuring the wettability of a new type of coating proved problematic. The coating displayed strong hydrophobic properties, making it difficult for the liquid used in the measurement to wet the surface. Application: A specialized minimal liquid technique was employed to overcome this challenge. By capturing data directly from the manufacturing environment, businesses gain access to precise and timely information, allowing them to detect and resolve issues swiftly, ultimately leading to better product outcomes and decision-making.
Solar Cell: Wettability

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächenforschung für die Elektro- und Elektronikindustrie.

IX. Fabrics

Revolutionierung des Inkjet-Textildrucks

In der faszinierenden Welt des Druckens komplizierter Designs auf Textilien mit Inkjet-Technologie optimieren Experten die Oberflächeneigenschaften des Stoffes akribisch, um die perfekte Leinwand zu gewährleisten. Textil- und Druckereien analysieren die Oberflächenspannung und die Kontaktwinkel, indem sie sie nicht passiv beobachten, sondern aktiv manipulieren, um sicherzustellen, dass das Gewebe die Farbe einwandfrei hält. Diese akribische Liebe zum Detail verhindert Verschmieren und Verwischen, was zu scharfen, lebendigen und auffälligen Mustern führt, die auf dem Stoff zum Leben erweckt werden.
Revolutionizing Inkjet Textile Printing

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächenwissenschaft für die Gewebeindustrie.

X. Landwirtschaft & Agrarwissenschaften

Adhäsion von Pestiziden

Herausforderung : Eine ungleichmäßige Verteilung von Pestiziden kann zu Schädlingsbefall und Krankheiten in der Landwirtschaft führen. Bedeutung des Kontaktwinkels : Die richtigen Kontaktwinkel in Pestizidformulierungen sorgen für eine ausgewogene Abdeckung auf Pflanzenoberflächen. Lösung : Ein landwirtschaftlicher Betrieb testete verschiedene Pestizidformulierungen mit unterschiedlichen Kontaktwinkeln. Sie fanden heraus, dass Formulierungen mit einem Kontaktwinkel nahe Null besser an den Pflanzenblättern haften, den Abfluss von Pestiziden reduzieren und die Schädlingsbekämpfung verbessern, was zu gesünderen Pflanzen führt.
Pesticide Adhesion

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Farming & Agriscience industry.

XI. Lebensmittel & Getränke

Getränkekonservierung: Steigerung von Frische und Effizienz

In der Getränkeindustrie ist die Erhaltung der Frische von größter Bedeutung. Für Hersteller von Säften, Erfrischungsgetränken und alkoholischen Getränken ist die Sicherstellung der Frische und Haltbarkeit der Produkte von entscheidender Bedeutung. Herkömmliche Verpackungstechniken greifen oft zu kurz, was zu Ressourcenverschwendung und erhöhten Kosten führt.

Die genaue Kontaktwinkelmessung ermöglicht eine kritische Bewertung der Benetzungseigenschaften von Getränkeverpackungsmaterialien. Dieses Wissen ermöglicht es Ihnen, Materialien auszuwählen, die das Eindringen von Feuchtigkeit effektiv verhindern und so die Qualität und Haltbarkeit Ihrer Getränke verlängern. Diese Praxis reduziert nicht nur den Produktabfall, sondern senkt auch die Verpackungskosten, was letztendlich die finanzielle Leistung des Unternehmens verbessert.

Beverage Preservation: Enhancing Freshness and Efficiency

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächentechnik für die Lebensmittel- und Getränkeindustrie.

XII. Mechanisch / Industrie

Verhinderung von Flugzeugvereisung

Herausforderung : In der Luftfahrtindustrie ist die Eisbildung auf Flugzeugoberflächen ein großes Problem. Eisansammlungen auf den Flugzeugflügeln unterbrechen die Luftströmung, was zu einem verringerten Auftrieb und einer verringerten Kontrolle führt.

Lösung : Ingenieure haben an einem Anti-Icing-System gearbeitet, das von den Kontaktwinkeln abhängt. Durch eine sorgfältige Steuerung des Kontaktwinkels entstehen superhydrophobe Oberflächen. Es sorgt dafür, dass Eis nicht so leicht an den Flügeln und Oberflächen des Flugzeugs haften bleiben kann. Die neue superhydrophobe Oberfläche erhöht die Sicherheit, indem sie die Ansammlung von Eis verhindert und das Gewicht und den Energieverbrauch reduziert, die mit herkömmlichen Enteisungsmethoden verbunden sind.

Aircraft Icing Prevention

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächenkunde für den mechanischen / industriellen Bereich.

XIII. Medical Device

Creating Safer Implantable Medical Devices

A group of experts actively crafts medical devices like stents and catheters for implantation within the human body. Recognizing the crucial role of surface properties in preventing infections, they meticulously study liquid interactions with these surfaces. This in-depth analysis allows them to design surfaces that repel protein adhesion, ultimately reducing the risk of equipment failure and ensuring smoother patient recoveries.
Creating Safer Implantable Medical Devices

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Medical Device industry.

XIV. Bergbau & Metalle

Innovative Flotationstechniken im Bergbau

Herausforderung: Das Erreichen einer effizienten Flotation sowohl im Kupfer- als auch im Goldbergbau ist von entscheidender Bedeutung, aber auch komplex, da wertvolle Mineralien selektiv an Luftblasen gebunden werden müssen und gleichzeitig das Benetzungsverhalten und die Oberflächenspannung kontrolliert werden müssen.

Lösung: Die Flotation im Bergbau hängt stark von der Wechselwirkung zwischen mineralischen Partikeln und Luftblasen ab. Für den Kupferbergbau ist die Optimierung des Kontaktwinkels von entscheidender Bedeutung, um Kupfermineralien selektiv zu schwimmen und Gangmineralien wie Siliziumdioxid abzuwehren. Erreichen eines idealen Kontaktwinkels von 0 0 Sorgt für Hydrophobie, was zu einem hochwertigen Kupferkonzentrat führt.

Im Goldbergbau ist die Kontrolle der Oberflächenspannung unerlässlich, um einen stabilen Schaum zu erzeugen. Dieser Schaum ermöglicht es, dass sich Goldpartikel an Luftblasen anlagern und effektiv von Gangartmaterialien getrennt werden. Die richtigen Oberflächenspannungswerte stellen sicher, dass die Luftblasen ausreichend Auftrieb und Stabilität haben, um Goldpartikel an die Oberfläche zu transportieren und so eine effiziente Rückgewinnung zu ermöglichen.

Innovative Flotation Techniques in Mining

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Mining & Metals industry

XV. Öl & Gas

Enhanced Water-Oil Separation

Offshore oil platforms face a challenge: their production stream contains significant water that forms a stubborn emulsion with the crude oil due to high surface tension. To break this unwanted bond, engineers actively lower surface tension using carefully chosen surfactants. By measuring contact angle and surface energy, they precisely select the most effective chemicals. This targeted approach improves emulsion destabilization, leading to more efficient water-oil separation and significantly reduced energy consumption during processing.
Enhanced Water-Oil Separation

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Oil & Gas industry

XVI. Verpackung & Behälter

Removal of Printing Ink in Mechanical Recycling Process

Herausforderung : Printing ink in flexible packaging materials can cause contamination in the mechanical recycling process.

Lösung : The removal of printing ink residue from the surface of flexible plastic packaging can be achieved through detergency, mechanical, and chemical cleaning processes. In this context, contact angle measurements are invaluable for studying the interaction between the polymer and surfactant. These measurements are highly effective in comparing the wetting behavior of surfactants on various printing ink systems and non-printed film surfaces.

Removal of Printing Ink in Mechanical Recycling Process

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Packaing & Containers industry.

XVII. Farbe

The Metal Dilemma: From Peeling to Perfect Adhesion

A paint manufacturer dives into coating metal, expecting long-lasting results. But instead, they face a nightmare: paint peeling off after mere months. The culprit? A mismatch in surface energies. Through meticulous surface tension and wettability analysis, the low surface energy of the metal stands exposed. Undeterred, the manufacturer revamps the paint formula, boosting its surface energy. The result? Paint that seamlessly bonds with the metal, forming an inseparable union.
The Metal Dilemma: From Peeling to Perfect Adhesion

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Paint industry

XVIII. Pharmazeutische Industrie

Developing a New Oral Drug Formulation

Consider a scenario where a pharmaceutical company develops a new oral drug formulation. The drug’s success depends on its ability to dissolve quickly and be absorbed by the body. By measuring the wetting angle of the drug solution on various excipient surfaces, such as the tablet matrix and coating materials, the company can identify which materials promote optimal wetting and dissolution. A lower contact angle indicates better wetting and faster dissolution, leading to improved bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy.
Developing a New Oral Drug Formulation

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Pharmaceutical industry.

XIX. Kunststoffe

Verbesserung der Biokompatibilität von Medizinprodukten

Ein Hersteller von Medizinprodukten ist bestrebt, einen Kunststoffkatheter mit überlegener Biokompatibilität zu entwickeln, der das Risiko der Bildung von Blutgerinnseln minimiert. Sie haben die entscheidende Rolle der Oberflächeneigenschaften erkannt und nutzen Messungen der Oberflächenenergie und des Kontaktwinkels, um die Oberflächenenergie des Kathetermaterials strategisch zu optimieren. Durch das präzise Auftragen einer hydrophilen Beschichtung erhöhen sie erfolgreich die Oberflächenenergie, was zu einem geringeren Risiko der Gerinnselbildung und einer verbesserten Gesamtbiokompatibilität des Geräts führt.
Enhancing Biocompatibility in Medical Devices

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Plastics industry.

XX. Halbleiter

Fotolackhaftung in der Lithographie

In photolithography, meticulous pattern creation is key to manufacturing complex semiconductor devices. This process relies heavily on the delicate interplay between the photoresist and the substrate. Photoresist adhesion to the substrate acts as a linchpin, directly determining the sharpness and precision of the resulting patterns. To achieve optimal results, manufacturers delve into the surface science of these properties. By examining the substrate’s surface energy and analyzing the contact angle exhibited by the photoresist, they gain valuable insights to fine-tune adjustments. This refining process enhances adhesion properties, ultimately leading to a seamless pattern transfer. The benefits are manifold, including increased yields, sharper results, and a significant reduction in defects throughout the lithography process.
Photoresist Adhesion in Lithography

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Semiconductors industry

XXI. Schiffbau

Unebenheiten in der Oberflächenbeschichtung

Herausforderung: Ein Schiffslackierunternehmen sah sich aufgrund der Viskosität der Beschichtungsflüssigkeit, der Oberflächenspannung und des Kontaktwinkels des Substrats mit unebenen Oberflächenbeschichtungen konfrontiert.

Lösung: Das Ingenieurteam des Unternehmens entdeckte, dass die Verwendung einer Beschichtungsflüssigkeit mit einem Kontaktwinkel von weniger als 90° einen Pinning-Effekt verursacht, der die Unebenheiten der Oberfläche reduziert. Durch die Anpassung des Kontaktwinkels, um diesen Effekt zu erzielen, milderten sie die Auswirkungen unebener Beschichtungen und nutzten das Zusammenspiel zwischen der Viskosität der Flüssigkeit und der Oberflächenenergie des Substrats.

Unevenness in Surface Coating

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächenkunde für die Schiffbauindustrie.

XXII. Telekommunikation

Optimierung der Antennenleistung durch optimierte Oberflächenbeschichtungen

Herausforderung: Telekommunikationsunternehmen stehen vor Herausforderungen bei der Signaldämpfung bei starkem Regen (Rain Fade) und Unterbrechungen aufgrund von Eis und Schnee auf Infrastrukturen wie Antennen und Satellitenschüsseln. Diese Probleme können die Zuverlässigkeit der Signalübertragung stark beeinträchtigen.

Lösung: Das Unternehmen zielte darauf ab, die Leistung von 5G-Antennen unter regnerischen Bedingungen durch die Entwicklung superhydrophober Beschichtungen zu verbessern. Durch rigorose Experimente mit verschiedenen Beschichtungen optimierten sie die Kontaktwinkel, um Oberflächen mit hoher Wasserabweisung zu gestalten. Diese Innovation reduzierte die Regendämpfung erheblich, indem verhindert wurde, dass Wassertropfen die Signalübertragung beeinträchtigen. Dadurch behielten die Antennen auch bei starkem Regen eine starke Signalstärke bei.

Darüber hinaus führte das Unternehmen in kalten Regionen, die anfällig für Eis- und Schneeablagerungen auf Satellitenschüsseln sind, Tests durch, um superhydrophobe Materialien mit großen Kontaktwinkeln und geringen Gleitwinkeln zu identifizieren. Diese Materialien minimieren effektiv die Eisanhaftung und sorgen für einen ununterbrochenen Signalempfang. Durch die Reduzierung der Ansammlung von Eis auf den Schalen erhöhten sie die Betriebssicherheit und sorgten für eine konsistente Signalübertragung bei extremen Wetterbedingungen.

Antenna Performance Optimization Using Optimized Surface Coatings

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Telecom industry

XXIII. Verkehr

Ice Accumulation on Aircraft Wings

To combat the dangerous threat of ice buildup on aircraft wings, coatings are being developed with a dual purpose: anti-icing and de-icing. These coatings must effectively repel water droplets, prevent ice formation from both vapor and liquid states, and most importantly, significantly reduce ice adhesion once it forms. Measuring the contact angle and sliding angle becomes crucial in evaluating the effectiveness of superhydrophobic coatings for de-icing. By designing ice-phobic coatings with a low sliding angle, we can prevent ice from sticking and facilitate its easy removal, ultimately saving time and resources during deicing procedures.
Ice Accumulation on Aircraft Wings

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Practical Guide to Surface Science for the Transportation industry.

XXIV. Versorgungsunternehmen

Equipment Durability and Corrosion Resistance

Offshore equipment faces a harsh reality: constant exposure to saltwater leads to corrosion and decreased lifespan. The Company’s maintenance team combats this challenge by applying hydrophobic coatings with high contact angles directly onto equipment surfaces like pipelines, valves, and metal structures. These coatings actively repel water, preventing the formation of corrosive layers. This proactive approach extends the critical infrastructure’s lifespan, ultimately reducing maintenance costs and boosting the overall efficiency of offshore operations.
Equipment Durability and Corrosion Resistance

Explore other applications of Contact Angle measurement and lots more in our Praktischer Leitfaden zur Oberflächentechnik für die Versorgungsindustrie.

Challenges in Contact Angle Measurement

The importance of calibration

Achieving accurate contact angle measurements requires precise calibration. Subtle variations in an instrument’s performance can significantly impact the reported contact angle. Contamination of the needle with residual liquids, improper droplet size selection, and environmental fluctuations can introduce errors. For example, a clogged needle can distort the droplet shape, leading to an inaccurate contact angle reading. If the droplet size is too small, it limits the resolution of the image analysis software, while an overly large droplet might interact with surface imperfections, skewing the results.

Researchers must employ established calibration procedures and maintain a rigorous schedule for instrument checks to overcome these challenges. This includes verifying the needle’s cleanliness and ensuring its optimal size and shape. Additionally, meticulous calibration with standard reference liquids of known contact angles establishes a baseline for accurate measurements. Regular calibration and maintenance ensure that instruments consistently deliver reliable data.

Limitations in measuring extremely high or low angles

Measuring extremely high or low contact angles presents specific challenges. For very high angles, approaching 180°, droplets tend to form near-spherical shapes, making it difficult to determine the tangent at the contact line accurately.

Conversely, for very low angles, the droplet spreads thinly over the surface, complicating the precise identification of the contact point.

measurement of contact angle

These extreme angles often require specialized equipment and techniques, such as high-resolution cameras and advanced image analysis software, to achieve accurate measurements. Extremely low angles can also be affected by surface heterogeneity and contamination, further complicating measurement accuracy.

Contact Angle Measurement - The Definitive Guide

Researchers often use advanced techniques like goniometers equipped with high-resolution cameras and image-processing software to address these challenges. These tools allow for more precise determination of the contact angle, even at extreme values. Additionally, specialized techniques, such as sessile drop and captive bubble methods, can be employed to handle these challenging measurements.

Variability due to environmental conditions

Environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and air pressure, significantly impact contact angle measurements.

Contact Angle Measurement - The Definitive Guide

Temperature variations can alter the surface tension of liquids and the properties of the solid surface, leading to changes in the observed contact angle. Humidity affects the adsorption of water vapor onto the surface, modifying the surface energy and, consequently, the wettability. Air pressure variations further influence the droplet shape and its interaction with the surface. Therefore, maintaining consistent environmental conditions during measurements is crucial for obtaining reproducible and accurate contact angle data.

Researchers must control environmental conditions meticulously to ensure consistent results. This often involves conducting measurements in controlled environments, such as climate-controlled laboratories, and using instruments equipped with environmental control features.

Contact Angle Measurement - The Definitive Guide
Figure: Design concept of temperature and humidity control chamber by Droplet Lab

By maintaining stable temperature, humidity, and air pressure, researchers can minimize the impact of environmental variability on contact angle measurements.

How to perform Reproducible Contact Angle Measurement

The sensitivity of contact angles to factors such as surface roughness, contamination, and deformation often hampers reproducing consistent measurements. To ensure meaningful comparisons of wettability data across different laboratories, adopting standardized and reproducible measurement methodologies is essential.

Optical Tensiometry

Optical tensiometry is one of the most widely used techniques for measuring contact angles. It involves analyzing the profile of a liquid droplet on a solid surface using a high-resolution camera and image analysis software. The procedure for reproducible optical tensiometry includes several key steps:

  1. Surface preparation

    Ensure the surface is clean, dry, and free of contaminants. Use appropriate cleaning protocols, such as rinsing with solvents or plasma cleaning, and handle the surfaces with care to avoid introducing defects.

  2. Droplet deposition

    Deposit a small, consistent volume of liquid droplet on the surface. The droplet size should be large enough to form a stable meniscus but small enough to minimize gravitational effects.

  3. Image acquisition

    Capture high-resolution images of the droplet profile immediately after deposition. Ensure consistent lighting conditions and minimize vibrations to avoid artifacts in the droplet shape.

  4. Angle measurement

    Use image analysis software to fit the droplet profile and calculate the contact angle. The software typically employs algorithms to find the tangent at the contact line and measure the angle between the solid surface and the liquid interface.

    To ensure reproducibility, perform multiple measurements on different locations of the same surface and on replicate samples. Average the contact angles obtained from these measurements to account for any local surface variations.

We also recommend you read up on the best practices in the below-referenced paper.

Guidelines for measurements of reproducible contact angles using a sessile drop technique

Force Tensiometry

Force tensiometry, also known as the Wilhelmy plate method, measures contact angles based on the force exerted by a liquid meniscus on a vertically oriented plate or fiber. The procedure includes the following steps:

  1. Surface preparation

    Ensure the plate or fiber is clean and free of contaminants. Uniform surface treatment is vital for consistent results.

  2. Meniscus formation

    Submerge the plate or fiber into the liquid and then slowly withdraw it, allowing a liquid meniscus to form. The force exerted by the meniscus is measured by a sensitive balance.

  3. Data collection

    Record the force as a function of immersion depth or during withdrawal. The contact angle is calculated from the measured force using the Wilhelmy equation, which relates the force to the surface tension of the liquid and the perimeter of the plate or fiber.

    Force tensiometry is particularly useful for measuring advancing and receding contact angles, providing insights into hysteresis and dynamic wettability properties. Reproducibility is improved by controlling the immersion speed, ensuring consistent liquid properties, and using well-calibrated equipment.

How Droplet Lab Measures Contact Angle Using a Smartphone

Droplet Lab’s smartphone-based approach offers comparable contact angle measurement accuracy as traditional instruments, along with simplicity, compactness, and portability. This innovative method overcomes the challenges posed by smartphone optical zoom by utilizing an advanced image analysis algorithm.

The smartphone instrument uses both Young-Laplace and polynomial fitting methods to calculate contact angles. However, it employs Otsu’s algorithm to detect the drop profile from digitally zoomed images, ensuring precise contact point identification. For drops with reflections, the algorithm detects changes in the slope of the drop profile to locate contact points. Without reflections, it identifies the point where the slope becomes zero

Schematic for principle of contact point detection system: (a) an image of a drop with reflection, (b) an image of a drop without reflection, and (c) a drop with a contact angle close to 90 . The right column shows digitally detected profiles (the dashed box shows the estimated area to guide the eyes).

Contact Angle Measurement - The Definitive Guide
  • Handling various drop profiles:
    • The system can identify drops with contact angles close to 90° by checking continuous neighboring profile points.
    • Ensures accurate contact point detection even for nearly perpendicular drops.
  • Experimentelle Validierung:
    • The smartphone instrument’s performance was tested against synthetic drops with known contact angles, achieving an accuracy of 0.01%.
Contact Angle Measurement - The Definitive Guide
Summary of the error for synthetic contact angle measurements using both the Young-Laplace and Polynomial fitting methods.
  • Practical measurements compared with high-end commercial instruments showed remarkable consistency and precision.
Contact Angle Measurement - The Definitive Guide
Comparison between measurement results from commercial and smartphone instruments (advancing and receding contact angle measurement). For each of the surfaces, three different drops were used. The reported values are the average value of three measurements.

For more detailed information please refer to the paper published by our founders in AIP Publishing – Review of Scientific Instruments.

  • Pädagogische und praktische Anwendungen:
    • Affordable and accessible for educational purposes, the smartphone method allows students to learn about contact angle measurement without expensive equipment.
    • Practical for in situ or fieldwork, it provides accurate measurements comparable to traditional lab-based instruments.

Fortgeschrittene Themen

Super-hydrophobic and Super-hydrophilic Surfaces

Superhydrophobic surfaces, characterized by contact angles greater than 150° and low contact angle hysteresis, demonstrate remarkable water-repellent properties.

Contact Angle Measurement &#8211; The Definitive Guide

These surfaces mimic the lotus leaf effect, where water droplets roll off, carrying away dirt and contaminants. Conversely, superhydrophilic surfaces have contact angles approaching zero, leading to complete wetting and spreading of water. These surfaces find applications in anti-fogging and self-cleaning technologies. Designing such surfaces often involves creating micro and nanoscale roughness to boost their intrinsic wettability properties

Dynamic wetting and spreading dynamics
Dynamic wetting examines the behavior of liquids on solid surfaces under non-equilibrium conditions. The advancing and receding contact angles, which denote the highest and lowest metastable states, respectively, are key to understanding dynamic wetting. Spreading dynamics focus on how quickly a liquid spreads across a surface, influenced by factors like surface tension and viscosity. The interplay between these angles and the velocity of spreading provides insights into the wetting properties of various materials, crucial for applications in coatings, printing, and microfluidics.
Impact of Nanoscale Structures on Wettability

The Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter models describe how roughness and heterogeneity at the nanoscale alter apparent contact angles. The Wenzel state assumes complete wetting of the surface roughness, leading to enhanced hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity depending on the surface chemistry. In contrast, the Cassie-Baxter state involves air pockets trapped beneath the liquid, promoting superhydrophobicity. These nanoscale modifications are vital for developing advanced materials with tailored wettability, such as anti-icing surfaces and biomimetic coatings.

Schlussfolgerung

Contact angle measurements provide valuable insights into the wettability, adhesion, and surface energy of materials, impacting fields such as materials science, chemistry, and manufacturing. By utilizing advanced technologies like high-resolution imaging and precise software analysis, these measurements can be conducted with greater accuracy and efficiency.

Looking ahead, advancements in technology will lead to more precise measurements, aided by artificial intelligence. The future holds promise for eco-friendly materials and processes, driven by sustainable practices. From pharmaceuticals to renewable energy, controlling surface interactions will deliver innovative solutions for future challenges.

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